lunes, 30 de mayo de 2016

Alemania a la conquista de Europa


En El Arte de la Guerra, Sun Tzu escribe que es mejor conquistar un estado intacto que destruirlo; que la excelencia no consiste en ganar todas las batallas, sino en derrotar al enemigo; y que el estratega astuto derrota al enemigo sin pelear. La conquista exitosa es un proceso sutil, paciente, y silencioso que envuelve al enemigo hasta que, cuando se da cuenta, ya es demasiado tarde.

En el campo de la política económica la conquista se manifiesta en el control de la comunicación, de los grupos de decisión y, sobre todo, del diseño de las reglas. Los grandes cambios legislativos suelen tener lugar tras una crisis, cuando los políticos, y los gobiernos, prometen que nunca más sucederá algo similar. La clave es la definición de “similar”, es decir, la narrativa de la crisis. El grupo que controla la narrativa controla el poder. La narrativa determina el futuro. Esto ocurre en todas partes. En EE UU, la narrativa del Partido Republicano tras la crisis del 2007, con dominio del congreso, se concentró en el peligro de la deuda pública, los errores de la Reserva Federal, y la necesidad de regular el sistema financiero. De ahí el secuestro fiscal (el proceso que derivó en el cierre del Gobierno, la amenaza del impago de la deuda, y una excesiva contracción fiscal); las iniciativas de auditar la Reserva Federal y obligarla a que use la “Regla de Taylor” (una fórmula que determina el tipo de interés en función del nivel de inflación y de desempleo); y la legislación Dodd-Frank que ha endurecido de manera significativa (exagerada según muchos expertos) la regulación financiera y recortado la capacidad de la Reserva Federal de gestionar crisis futuras.

En Europa, el diseño de las reglas como vehículo de ejercicio del poder es todavía mas intenso. Los ejemplos son múltiples, y van todos en la misma dirección: acomodar Europa a las necesidades alemanas. Alemania tiene una economía muy distinta de la de la zona euro, tanto cíclica como estructuralmente. Su economía languidecía recuperándose del impacto de la unificación mientras el resto de la zona euro gozaba del boom del euro, y por eso llego a la crisis del 2007 con menos desequilibrios que el resto. Un azar histórico que le permitió enfrentarse a la crisis con más margen de maniobra. Aun así, su sistema bancario tuvo que ser rescatado, y Alemania hoy es el país de la zona euro con mayor volumen de garantías públicas en el sistema bancario. Gracias a este decalage cíclico, y a unos tipos de interés bajísimos durante la crisis, Alemania goza ahora de un boom económico. Además, estructuralmente es una economía muy distinta al resto. Una alta tasa de ahorro, un enorme superávit por cuenta corriente, un sistema bancario dominado por los bancos públicos locales y regionales, una tasa bajísima de propiedad de vivienda.

Estas diferencias implican que lo que conviene a Alemania cada vez conviene menos a la zona euro. Múltiples decisiones adoptadas en los últimos años revelan esta divergencia. La decisión de no mutualizar la resolución del problema bancario, de introducir el riesgo de impago de la deuda soberana, de diseñar la expansión cuantitativa del BCE en base a la cuota de capital de cada país en el BCE y de no mutualizar las posibles pérdidas, de obligar a que los rescates bancarios que necesiten dinero público generen perdidas a los tenedores de bonos de los bancos. Todas ellas decisiones compatibles con la economía y la política alemana pero que han tenido consecuencias negativas en el resto de la zona euro.

El proceso continúa. Argumentando que los bonos soberanos son activos con riesgo, la unión europea, debate la imposición de requerimientos de capital a las tenencias de bonos soberanos de los bancos. Estos requerimientos serían proporcionales al riesgo de los bonos, lo cual generaría un pernicioso efecto procíclico en el sector financiero y aumentaría la probabilidad de retroalimentación de las crisis. Además, se quiere limitar las tenencias de bonos de cada país a un 25% del capital de cada banco, lo cual generaría ventas masivas de deuda pública. En ambos casos el impacto sería especialmente negativo para los países actualmente mas frágiles, perpetuando las diferencias. Una alternativa sería que todos los bonos tuvieran el mismo requerimiento de capital. Pero eso afectaría de manera negativa a los bonos alemanes y a la frágil banca alemana. Ya veremos cómo acaba.

Ninguna de las reglas adoptadas en los últimos años afectaban a la economía alemana —o se adoptaron una vez que Alemania había resuelto sus problemas (como la condición de aplicar pérdidas a los bonos bancarios en caso de ayudas públicas)—, o se le han otorgado excepciones (como no incluir su enorme sector bancario público en la supervisión europea). Alemania está conquistando Europa a base de reglas y de argumentos morales que, aunque puedan ser conceptualmente correctos, no lo son en la frágil situación actual. La crisis del sector bancario italiano es la víctima más reciente. La regla que obliga a aplicar pérdidas a bonos bancarios que se vendieron como si fueran depósitos seguros es políticamente explosiva, ha retrasado la gestión de los problemas de la banca italiana, y puede desencadenar una crisis financiera. La gestión de la crisis de los refugiados obedece al mismo patrón.

La amenaza de expulsar a Grecia de Schengen se basa en un informe técnico, pero tiene su origen en los tremendos problemas políticos que la crisis migratoria está generando en Alemania. El enfrentamiento del primer ministro italiano Renzi con la Unión Europea no es una casualidad. Es la rebelión a la estrategia envolvente de germanización de Europa, cuyo coste está empezando a ser excesivo. El excanciller alemán Helmut Schmidt, en dos discursos en 2011, ya alertó de la necesidad de contener este avance silencioso alemán. Pero la estrategia de Renzi de confrontación ruidosa y unilateral no es adecuada. Hay que generar un debate con argumentos intelectuales sólidos, no con lamentos electoralistas o populistas.

Ante el moralismo del ordoliberalismo alemán hay que defender las virtudes de una política keynesiana de apoyo al crecimiento potencial, necesaria en un momento de insuficiencia de demanda, entroncada en una política fiscal común que convierta a la zona euro en una verdadera unión monetaria. Las reformas son necesarias pero no suficientes. La política monetaria ha sido muy efectiva, pero no es suficiente. Hay que re-equilibrar la estrategia actual europea de reducción de riesgo y defaults. La disciplina debe venir acompañada de solidaridad. Más de los mismo ya no sirve. Si el único argumento que queda para mantener la zona euro es el elevado coste de disolverla, tenemos un problema muy serio.

Ángel Ubide es Senior Fellow del Peterson Institute for International Economics

 

jueves, 26 de mayo de 2016

International Trade and jobs


Daniel Altman Reminder.....
As a recovering economist writing on behalf of my erstwhile field, I would like to apologize to every American who has lost a job or a livelihood because of globalization. Economics has failed you. It has failed you because of ideology, politics, and laziness. It has failed you because its teachings are woefully incomplete, and its greatest exponents have done almost nothing to complete them.
There are “positive” questions in economics that have mathematical answers — things that simply must be true — and then there are “normative” questions that amount to value judgments on points of policy. In economics classes, we teach the former and usually stop short when faced with the latter. This leaves a hole in any discussion of economic policy; students acquire first principles but rarely consider real-world applications, because to do so would presuppose a social or political point of view.
In the case of free trade and globalization, this omission has been disastrous. All first-year students of economics learn the theory of comparative advantage and gains from trade. They see a mathematical proof showing that when two countries trade goods or services, the benefits to the winners outweigh the costs to the losers. They are assured, correctly, that this result allows everyone to be made better off — or at least no worse off — by trade.
Yet the redistribution required to generate this broad improvement in living standards is hardly addressed, or sometimes even mentioned. To do so would be to step into the muddy mire of normative questions. Should the government take from some people in order to give to others? Who should give the most, and who should receive? What exactly should they receive?
Even putting politics aside, these are not easy questions. No one has figured out a foolproof way to make workers hurt by globalization whole again. In theory, everyone who benefited from globalization — every consumer who bought cheap imported products, every producer who used cheap imported inputs, every exporter — would have to chip in. Likewise, everyone who suffered — every worker whose job moved abroad, every shareholder whose company’s prices were undercut by foreign competition — would be in line for compensation. Moreover, society would have to agree on the value of all these benefits and costs, not in dollars but rather in terms of well-being.
This might be heavy going for first-year students, not to mention their professors, so we move on to the next model. Consider the following passages from recent first-year economics textbooks — after several pages on comparative advantage and gains from trade, these are virtually all the words the authors chose to devote to the nettlesome issue of winners and losers:
Tyler Cowen and Alex Tabarrok of George Mason University offer this breezy guidance: “Job destruction is ultimately a healthy part of any growing economy, but that doesn’t mean we have to ignore the costs of transitioning from one job to another. Unemployment insurance, savings, and a strong education system can help workers respond to shocks.” It may be worth noting that Cowen is a frequent critic of unemployment insurance on his blog.
Nobel laureate Paul Krugman and his wife, the economist Robin Wells, are even less specific: “The great majority of economists would argue that the gains from reducing trade protection still exceed the losses. However, it has become more important than before to make sure that the gains from international trade are widely spread.” Perhaps the book’s brevity owes something to Krugman’s opinion that gains from trade have pretty much been exhausted anyway.
More realism comes from N. Gregory Mankiw, the former chairman of George W. Bush’s Council of Economic Advisers, who sounds resigned: “But will trade make everyone better off? Probably not. In practice, compensation for the losers from international trade is rare. Without such compensation, opening up to international trade is a policy that expands the size of the economic pie, while perhaps leaving some participants in the economy with a smaller slice.”
Finally, R. Glenn Hubbard, Mankiw’s predecessor in the White House, and Anthony Patrick O’Brien of Lehigh University are the only ones who mention the program designed to accomplish redistribution: “It may be difficult, though, for workers who lose their jobs because of trade to easily find others. That is why in the United States the federal government uses the Trade Adjustment Assistance program to provide funds for workers who have lost their jobs due to international trade. These funds can be used for retraining, for searching for new jobs, or for relocating to areas where new jobs are available. This program — and similar programs in other countries — recognizes that there are losers from international trade as well as winners.”
The Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) program has a budget of about $664 million, or roughly 0.004 percent of gross domestic product. This means one dollar of every $25,000 in income generated by the United States goes to help people here who have been hurt by globalization. They don’t receive the cash directly; they just have to hope that the program — which offers retooling, retraining, and relocation, among other services — will aid their transition to new jobs.
There aren’t many beneficiaries, either. Even in the dark economic days of 2010, fewer than 300,000 Americans received TAA. Yet to judge by the political climate, millions more have grievances related to globalization. Across the country, Bernie Sanders and Donald Trump have garnered applause and probably votes as well by attacking the North American Free Trade Agreement and potential new deals with Europe and Asia.
This should not come as a surprise to economists. I’ve lost count of the times I’ve written that globalization reduces inequality among countries and increases inequality within countries. The wealthiest, most highly educated, and most internationally connected people are always the best equipped to claim the biggest gains from trade. In poor countries, these gains from trade often come from the exports of labor-intensive industries, and the millions of people who work in these industries may benefit as well. That used to happen here, too, but not anymore.
In the United States, the big losers from the current wave of globalization have been working- and middle-class people, as Branko Milanovic of the City University of New York details in his new book, Global Inequality. Many of them have gravitated to the insurgent campaigns of Trump and Sanders, whose proposals have left economists shaking their heads and wringing their hands.

But we have only ourselves to blame. We never told our students the importance of managing the transition to a more integrated global economy. We never really told them how to do it, either. If we had done our jobs, it needn’t have been this way.

jueves, 19 de mayo de 2016

Markets and Competition

Interesting analysis of Stiglitz on Markets and Competition

NEW YORK – For 200 years, there have been two schools of thought about what determines the distribution of income – and how the economy functions. One, emanating from Adam Smith and nineteenth-century liberal economists, focuses on competitive markets. The other, cognizant of how Smith’s brand of liberalism leads to rapid concentration of wealth and income, takes as its starting point unfettered markets’ tendency toward monopoly. It is important to understand both, because our views about government policies and existing inequalities are shaped by which of the two schools of thought one believes provides a better description of reality.
For the nineteenth-century liberals and their latter-day acolytes, because markets are competitive, individuals’ returns are related to their social contributions – their “marginal product,” in the language of economists. Capitalists are rewarded for saving rather than consuming – for their abstinence, in the words of Nassau Senior, one of my predecessors in the Drummond Professorship of Political Economy at Oxford. Differences in income were then related to their ownership of “assets” – human and financial capital. Scholars of inequality thus focused on the determinants of the distribution of assets, including how they are passed on across generations.
      
The second school of thought takes as its starting point “power,” including the ability to exercise monopoly control or, in labor markets, to assert authority over workers. Scholars in this area have focused on what gives rise to power, how it is maintained and strengthened, and other features that may prevent markets from being competitive. Work on exploitation arising from asymmetries of information is an important example.
In the West in the post-World War II era, the liberal school of thought has dominated. Yet, as inequality has widened and concerns about it have grown, the competitive school, viewing individual returns in terms of marginal product, has become increasingly unable to explain how the economy works. So, today, the second school of thought is ascendant.
After all, the large bonuses paid to banks’ CEOs as they led their firms to ruin and the economy to the brink of collapse are hard to reconcile with the belief that individuals’ pay has anything to do with their social contributions. Of course, historically, the oppression of large groups – slaves, women, and minorities of various types – are obvious instances where inequalities are the result of power relationships, not marginal returns.
In today’s economy, many sectors – telecoms, cable TV, digital branches from social media to Internet search, health insurance, pharmaceuticals, agro-business, and many more – cannot be understood through the lens of competition. In these sectors, what competition exists is oligopolistic, not the “pure” competition depicted in textbooks. A few sectors can be defined as “price taking”; firms are so small that they have no effect on market price. Agriculture is the clearest example, but government intervention in the sector is massive, and prices are not set primarily by market forces.
US President Barack Obama’s Council of Economic Advisers, led by Jason Furman, has attempted to tally the extent of the increase in market concentration and some of its implications. In most industries, according to the CEA, standard metrics show large – and in some cases, dramatic – increases in market concentration. The top ten banks’ share of the deposit market, for example, increased from about 20% to 50% in just 30 years, from 1980 to 2010.
Some of the increase in market power is the result of changes in technology and economic structure: consider network economies and the growth of locally provided service-sector industries. Some is because firms – Microsoft and drug companies are good examples – have learned better how to erect and maintain entry barriers, often assisted by conservative political forces that justify lax anti-trust enforcement and the failure to limit market power on the grounds that markets are “naturally” competitive. And some of it reflects the naked abuse and leveraging of market power through the political process: Large banks, for example, lobbied the US Congress to amend or repeal legislation separating commercial banking from other areas of finance.
The consequences are evident in the data, with inequality rising at every level, not only across individuals, but also across firms. The CEA report noted that the “90th percentile firm sees returns on investments in capital that are more than five times the median. This ratio was closer to two just a quarter of a century ago.”
Joseph Schumpeter, one of the great economists of the twentieth century, argued that one shouldn’t be worried by monopoly power: monopolies would only be temporary. There would be fierce competition for the market and this would replace competition in the market and ensure that prices remained competitive.

My own theoretical work long ago showed the flaws in Schumpeter’s analysis, and now empirical results provide strong confirmation. Today’s markets are characterized by the persistence of high monopoly profits.
The implications of this are profound. Many of the assumptions about market economies are based on acceptance of the competitive model, with marginal returns commensurate with social contributions. This view has led to hesitancy about official intervention: If markets are fundamentally efficient and fair, there is little that even the best of governments could do to improve matters. But if markets are based on exploitation, the rationale for laissez-faire disappears. Indeed, in that case, the battle against entrenched power is not only a battle for democracy; it is also a battle for efficiency and shared prosperity.


by Joseph Stiglitz